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The CBC (Complete Blood Count) test measures the number of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. Each of these blood cells performs essential functions–RBCs carry oxygen from your lungs to the various body parts, WBCs help fight infections and other diseases, and platelets help your blood to clot. Therefore, determining their levels can provide significant health information. A CBC test also determines the hemoglobin level, a protein in RBC that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of your body. Evaluating all these components together can provide important information about your overall health.

An SGPT (Alanine Transaminase) test measures the amount of alanine transaminase (ALT) or SGPT enzyme in your blood. ALT is most abundantly found in the liver but is also present in smaller amounts in other organs like the kidneys, heart, and muscles. Its primary function is to convert food into energy. It also speeds up chemical reactions in the body. These chemical reactions include the production of bile and substances that help your blood clot, break down food and toxins, and fight off an infection.

Elevated levels of ALT in the blood may indicate liver damage or injury. When the liver cells are damaged, they release ALT into the bloodstream, causing an increase in ALT levels. Therefore, the SGPT/ALT test is primarily used to assess the liver's health and to detect liver-related problems such as hepatitis, fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, or other liver disorders.

The HbA1c (Glycosylated Hemoglobin) test precisely measures the percentage of sugar-coated or glycated hemoglobin in your blood. The test results represent the proportion of hemoglobin in your blood that has been glycated. 

Hemoglobin, a vital protein found in red blood cells, is responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body. Hemoglobin A is the most abundant form of hemoglobin, and when blood sugar levels increase, a higher proportion of hemoglobin A becomes glycated. As red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 120 days, the sugar molecules remain attached to the hemoglobin for the duration of the cell's life. Consequently, the HbA1c (Glycosylated Hemoglobin) test offers insight into your average blood sugar levels over the past 8 to 12 weeks.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

Physiological Factors

 🧒Age: HbA1c tends to increase slightly with age, even in non-diabetics.

🫄Pregnancy: HbA1c levels typically decrease due to increased red blood cell turnover, especially in the second and third trimesters.

Lifestyle Factors

 🥗Diet: Consistently high sugar intake leads to elevated HbA1c over time.

😟Stress: Chronic stress can affect blood glucose levels and thus HbA1c.

😴Sleep: Poor sleep quality and sleep disorders may worsen glucose control and raise HbA1c.

🚬Smoking: Smoking can increase insulin resistance and raise HbA1c levels.

🍷Alcohol: Excessive alcohol use can cause fluctuations in blood sugar and affect HbA1c accuracy.

Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult your healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

What Do Normal HbA1c Levels Mean?

A normal HbA1c level is generally below 5.7%. This indicates that your blood sugar has been well controlled over the past 2–3 months. Staying in this range suggests your body is managing glucose effectively and helps reduce the risk of future health problems.

What High HbA1c Levels Indicate?

An HbA1c level between 5.7% and 6.4% usually suggests prediabetes, where blood sugar is higher than normal but not yet in the diabetic range. A level of 6.5% or above typically indicates diabetes. 

What to Do if Your HbA1c Is Higher Than Normal?

If your HbA1c level is above the recommended range, try not to panic. Many people are able to bring it down with the right lifestyle changes, such as healthier eating, regular physical activity, and proper medication when needed. It is important to consult your doctor, who can guide you on the best steps for managing and improving your HbA1c.

What Do Low Levels of HbA1c Indicate?

Low HbA1c level (below 4%) is uncommon and may point to issues such as excess insulin use, anemia, or other conditions that shorten the lifespan of red blood cells. Since low readings can have different underlying causes, always consult a doctor to understand what they mean in your specific case.

Can HbA1c Results Be Inaccurate?

Yes. Certain conditions such as recent blood transfusion, pregnancy, liver or kidney disorders etc., can affect the test accuracy. If your results do not match your symptoms or overall health, your doctor may suggest repeating the test or additional testing. In hemoglobinopathies, where the normal form of hemoglobin (HbA1) is reduced or absent, HbA1c values may be inaccurate or may not be reported at all. In such cases, results should be interpreted along with other tests like fasting blood sugar, post-prandial blood sugar, or the Fructosamine test.

What Factors Can Affect HbA1c Results?

Though it is a reliable test, several factors can influence accuracy:

• Blood disorders such as anemia, sickle cell trait, or chronic blood loss
• Recent blood transfusion 
• Kidney or liver diseases
• High-dose vitamin supplementation (such as vitamin C or E)
• Certain medications, including those for HIV or anemia
• Pregnancy (second and third trimester)
• Ethnic differences in hemoglobin structure (hemoglobinopathies)

What Follow-Up Tests May Be Required?

Based on your HbA1c results, your doctor may recommend additional tests to get a clearer picture of your health or to monitor possible complications. These may include: 

How Does HbA1c Differ from Other Blood Glucose Tests?

It is important to understand how the HbA1c (Glycosylated Hemoglobin) test differs from other common blood sugar tests: 

Fasting Blood Glucose (FBS): Measures blood sugar at a single point in time, usually after 8–12 hours of fasting.

Random Blood Glucose (RBS): Measures blood sugar at any time of the day, regardless of meals, giving a quick snapshot of current levels.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Measures how the body processes sugar by checking blood glucose before and after drinking a glucose solution.

Postprandial Blood Sugar Test (PPBS): Measures blood sugar levels after a meal (usually 2 hours post eating) to assess how well the body manages glucose following food intake.

The Vitamin B12 measures the amount of vitamin B12 in your blood. Vitamin B12 is important for a healthy nervous system, making red blood cells, and creating DNA in your cells. Low B12 levels are common in older adults, children, vegans or vegetarians, people with diabetes, those who had gastric bypass surgery, breastfeeding women, and people with conditions like Crohn’s disease that affect vitamin absorption. High B12 levels can occur in liver diseases, certain blood disorders, or from taking vitamin supplements. Usually, high levels from supplements are not harmful, as extra B12 is removed through urine.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

The Blood Urea Nitrogen test measures the levels of urea nitrogen in the blood. Blood urea is a waste product that is formed in the liver when you eat food and the protein is metabolized into amino acids. This process leads to the production of ammonia that is further converted into urea. Both ammonia and urea are nitrogenous compounds. Your liver releases urea into the blood which is then carried out to the kidneys. In the kidneys, urea is filtered from the blood and flushed out of the body via urine. This is a continuous process, so a small amount of urea nitrogen always remains in the blood.

In the case of a kidney or liver disease, there is a change in the amount of urea present in the blood. If your liver produces urea in an increased amount or if there is any problem in kidney functioning, there might be difficulty in filtering out the waste products from the blood, which can result in increased urea levels in the blood.

The Serum Creatinine test measures the creatinine level, a byproduct produced by the wear and tear of muscles during energy production. Since kidneys help filter creatinine, this test helps determine how well your kidneys work. Usually, high levels of creatinine in the blood signal diminished kidney function. At the same time, low levels may indicate decreased muscle mass.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

Physiological Factors

🧒 Age: Creatinine levels may decrease with age (due to reduction in muscle mass).

🫄 Pregnancy: Slightly lower levels can be seen due to physiological changes in kidney function during pregnancy.

Lifestyle Factors

🥗 Diet: High protein intake may transiently increase creatinine.

🏋️ Exercise: Intense physical activity can temporarily elevate creatinine levels.

💊 Medications: Some medicines, such as NSAIDs, antibiotics, or certain blood pressure medications, may influence kidney function and creatinine levels.

Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult your healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

What Do Normal Serum Creatinine Levels Mean?

Normal serum creatinine levels indicate that the kidneys are functioning properly and effectively filtering waste products from the blood.

What Do High Levels of Serum Creatinine Indicate?

High serum creatinine may indicate impaired kidney function, dehydration, urinary tract obstruction, or other conditions affecting renal health.

What to Do if Your Serum Creatinine Is Higher Than Normal?

If your creatinine level is higher than normal, consult your doctor for proper guidance. They may recommend additional tests, lifestyle adjustments, medication review, or referral to a nephrologist.

What Do Low Levels of Serum Creatinine Indicate?

Low levels are uncommon but may indicate low muscle mass, malnutrition, or liver disease. Always discuss results with your healthcare provider.

Can Serum Creatinine Results Be Inaccurate?

Yes, serum creatinine results can sometimes be inaccurate. Factors such as severe muscle loss, certain medications or supplements, and variations or errors in laboratory test methodologies can affect the accuracy of the results.

What Factors Can Affect Serum Creatinine Results?

Though a reliable test, several factors can influence accuracy:

• Muscle mass, age, sex
• Diet, hydration status
• Medications affecting kidney function
• Severe illness or trauma
• Hyperbilirubinemia

What Follow-Up Tests May Be Required?

Depending on your serum creatinine results, your doctor may recommend additional tests to get a clearer picture of kidney health. These can include urine tests, such as urine protein or microalbumin or cystatin C, to detect early kidney damage; an eGFR calculation to estimate kidney filtration efficiency; kidney imaging, like an ultrasound, to check for structural abnormalities; and electrolyte or kidney function panels to assess overall kidney performance and detect any imbalances. Fasting is not recommended for this test, you can eat and drink as per your daily routine.

Table: Tests Commonly Ordered Alongside the Serum Creatinine Test

How Does the Serum Creatinine Test Differ from Other Kidney Tests?

The Serum Creatinine test directly measures kidney filtration and indicates how efficiently the kidneys remove creatinine from the blood. Other kidney-related tests include:

BUN/Urea: Gives an idea of how well your kidneys are working. The levels can change with your diet or water intake.

Uric Acid: Checks the amount of uric acid in your blood. High levels may mean kidney or metabolism problems.

Serum Electrolytes: Measures important minerals like sodium, potassium, and chloride to check your body’s mineral balance.

BUN/Creatinine Ratio: Helps doctors find out if you have kidney issues or dehydration.

eGFR: Estimates your overall kidney function based on creatinine level, age, sex, and body size.

Creatinine Clearance: Compares blood and urine creatinine to see how well your kidneys filter waste.

Urine Creatinine: Measures the amount of creatinine in urine to help evaluate kidney health.

While these tests complement each other, Serum Creatinine specifically reflects kidney filtration efficiency, making it a key indicator of renal health.

The ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate) test measures how fast red blood cells (erythrocytes) settle in a tube over one hour.

When your body is inflamed, certain proteins, mainly fibrinogen, increase in the blood. These proteins cause the red blood cells to stick together in stacks. These stacks settle faster, leading to a higher ESR.

The ESR test shows that inflammation is present. However, it cannot tell you exactly where the inflammation is or what is causing it. That’s why doctors usually do this test along with other tests. This helps them understand and treat your health problems.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

The Lipid Profile assesses the level of specific fat molecules called lipids in the blood and helps determine the risk of heart ailments. This profile determines the amount of different types of lipids, including total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides. Lipids play a pivotal role in the functioning of the body. They are crucial components of the cell membranes and hormones, provide cushioning, and are a storehouse of energy. Any alterations in the lipid levels may lead to potential heart ailments, making their monitoring crucial.

The FBS (Fasting Blood Sugar) test measures the glucose level in the body under overnight fasting conditions. Glucose is the body's energy currency and is broken down through metabolism to produce energy. Hormones and enzymes produced by the liver and pancreas control this process. The hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas, regulates blood glucose levels. When these levels are high, such as after a meal, insulin is secreted to transport glucose into cells for energy production. Elevated glucose levels in the body after fasting may indicate a risk of developing prediabetes or diabetes, which can be of two types: type 1, caused by little or no insulin production, and type 2, caused by insulin resistance or decreased insulin production.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors

Physiological Factors

🧒 Age: Glucose levels may increase slightly with age, even in healthy individuals.

🫄 Pregnancy: Hormonal changes during pregnancy can temporarily alter blood sugar levels.

Lifestyle Factors

🥞 Diet: High sugar intake, irregular meals can affect fasting glucose readings.

😴 Sleep: Poor sleep quality, irregular sleep patterns, or chronic stress may elevate fasting glucose levels.

🚬 Smoking & Alcohol: Both can interfere with insulin function and lead to inaccurate blood sugar results.

Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult your healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

What Do Normal Fasting Blood Sugar Levels Mean?

Normal fasting blood sugar levels suggest that your body is efficiently regulating glucose through proper insulin function. It indicates a stable energy balance and a lower risk of developing diabetes or related metabolic issues.

What Do High Levels of Fasting Blood Sugar Indicate?

High fasting blood sugar levels may point to insulin resistance or reduced insulin activity in the body. It can be an early sign of prediabetes or diabetes and is often linked to factors such as poor diet, stress, inactivity, or certain health conditions.

What to Do if Your Fasting Blood Sugar Is Higher Than Normal?

If your fasting blood sugar level is higher than normal, it is important to follow up with your doctor. Many people successfully manage or reverse borderline results with healthy lifestyle changes such as balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, adequate sleep, and medical guidance when required.

What Do Low Levels of Fasting Blood Sugar Indicate?

Low fasting blood sugar levels may indicate that your body has more insulin than needed or that you have not eaten enough before the test. It can also occur due to certain medications or underlying medical conditions. Always consult your healthcare provider to understand the reason and manage it safely.

Can Fasting Blood Sugar Results Be Inaccurate?

Certain conditions or external factors such as skipping meals, lack of sleep etc., can affect FBS results. If your readings do not align with your symptoms or overall health, your doctor may recommend repeating the test or performing additional investigations to confirm accuracy.

What Factors Can Affect Fasting Blood Sugar Results?

Though a reliable test, some circumstances can influence accuracy:

• Eating or drinking anything (other than water) before the test
• Dehydration or prolonged fasting
• Stress or lack of sleep before testing
• Certain medications 
• Sunburn
• Coffee intake
• Alcohol

Table: Tests Commonly Ordered Alongside Fasting Blood Sugar Test:

The PPBS (Postprandial Blood Sugar) test measures blood sugar levels two hours after starting a meal. It is often done along with a fasting blood sugar (FBS) test. It helps determine how well your body can manage sugar after eating. It helps detect prediabetes or diabetes. High PPBS levels can signal early insulin resistance, making your body less responsive to insulin.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

Physiological Factors

🧒 Age: Blood sugar may slightly increase with age

🫄 Pregnancy: Hormonal changes can affect postprandial sugar

Lifestyle Factors

🍽️ Diet: High sugar intake, irregular meals, or skipping breakfast can affect blood glucose readings.

😴 Sleep: Poor sleep quality, irregular sleep patterns, or chronic stress may elevate blood glucose levels.

🚬 Smoking & Alcohol: Both can interfere with insulin function and lead to inaccurate blood sugar results.

Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult your healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

What Do Normal Postprandial Blood Sugar Levels Mean?

Normal postprandial blood sugar levels suggest that your body is effectively processing glucose after meals. It indicates that insulin is functioning properly to regulate blood sugar spikes, maintain stable energy levels, and reduce the risk of developing diabetes or related metabolic issues.

What Do High Levels of Postprandial Blood Sugar Indicate?

High postprandial blood sugar (PPBS) levels may indicate that your body is not efficiently using insulin or that glucose spikes after meals are excessive. This can be an early sign of prediabetes or diabetes and may be influenced by factors such as high carbohydrate intake, sedentary lifestyle, stress, or certain medical conditions.

What to Do if Your Postprandial Blood Sugar Is Higher Than Normal?

If your postprandial blood sugar is elevated, consult your doctor for guidance. Many people can manage or improve post-meal glucose levels through lifestyle modifications such as a balanced diet, portion control, regular physical activity, stress management, and following prescribed medications or supplements when recommended.

What Do Low Levels of Postprandial Blood Sugar Indicate?

Low postprandial blood sugar levels may suggest that your body has more insulin than needed or that your meal did not contain sufficient carbohydrates. Certain medications or underlying health conditions may also cause low post-meal glucose. Always consult your healthcare provider to understand the cause and manage it safely.

Can PPBS Results Be Inaccurate?

Yes. Certain conditions or external factors such as High sugary diets, skipping meals, lack of sleep etc., can affect PPSS results. If your readings do not align with your symptoms or overall health, your doctor may recommend repeating the test or performing additional investigations to confirm accuracy.

What Factors Can Affect Postprandial Blood Sugar Results?

Though it is a reliable test, some circumstances can influence accuracy:

• Eating meals with unusually high sugar or carbohydrate content before the test
• Skipping meals or not eating enough before the test
• Stress, lack of sleep, or illness before testing
• Certain medications that affect blood sugar levels
• Dehydration
• Consumption of coffee, alcohol, or other stimulants before testing

What Follow-Up Tests May Be Required?

Table: Tests Commonly Ordered Alongside Postprandial Blood Sugar

How Does PPBS (Postprandial Blood Sugar) Differ from Other Glucose Blood Tests?

FBS (Postprandial Blood Sugar): Measures glucose after 8–12 hours of fasting.

RBS (Random Blood Sugar): Measures blood sugar anytime, without fasting.

OGTT (Oral Glucose Tolerance Test): Measures blood sugar before and after consuming glucose.

Glycated Hemoglobin (HbA1c): Reflects average blood sugar over the past 2–3 months.

The Stool Examination R/M (Routine and Microscopy) test involves a detailed analysis of a stool sample under a microscope. It checks for abnormalities related to the digestive system, allowing doctors to understand the cause of digestive symptoms. This test checks several key features of the stool, such as:

• Color, consistency, and presence of mucus or blood: May indicate infections, inflammation, or bleeding in the intestines.
• Pus cells or white blood cells (WBCs): May suggest an infection or inflammation in the intestines.
• Red blood cells (RBCs): May indicate conditions like ulcers, anal fissures, hemorrhoids, or even more serious issues like colon or stomach cancer.
• Ova, cysts, or parasites: May help detect infections caused by Entamoeba histolytica (intestinal amoebiasis), Giardia lamblia (giardiasis), or other worms and parasites.

The Uric Acid, Serum test measures the amount of uric acid in your blood. Uric acid is a waste product formed when the body breaks down purines. Purines are the natural substances found in your body’s cells (DNA) and in certain foods like red meat or seafood. Under normal conditions, uric acid dissolves in the blood, passes through the kidneys, and is excreted in the urine. When this process doesn’t work properly, due to either increased production or reduced elimination, the uric acid can build up in the blood. This may indicate underlying health issues such as kidney dysfunction, gout, or the presence of kidney stones. In some cases, the exact reason for high uric acid levels is unclear. On the other hand, low uric acid levels are rarely a cause for concern. This test helps doctors understand if uric acid levels are within a healthy range and whether further evaluation or treatment is needed.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors

Physiological Factors

🧒 Age: Uric acid level rises every 10 years in men. However, it only begins increasing after the age of 50 in women. 

🧑‍🦳 Gender: Men generally have higher uric acid levels than women.

🫄 Pregnancy: Uric acid levels tend to drop during early pregnancy due to hormonal changes. These levels return to normal as the pregnancy progresses.

🩸Menopause: Uric acid levels are higher after menopause due to low estrogen levels. 

Lifestyle Factors

🏃 Exercise: Weight loss and physical exercise lower uric acid levels. 

🥗 Diet: Eating purine-rich foods (such as alcohol, red meat, seafood, etc., and fructose- or sugar-containing beverages) increases the uric acid levels.

😟Stress: Stress can affect blood cortisol levels and thus uric acid concentrations.

💊Medications: Medicines, such as diuretics, immunosuppressants, chemotherapeutic agents, etc., can affect uric acid removal. Therefore, they increase uric acid levels.

Geographical Location: High-altitude regions, such as mountains, can also increase the uric acid production, raising its levels. 

Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult your healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

What Do Normal Uric Acid, Serum Levels Mean?

Normal uric acid levels suggest proper breakdown of purines and uric acid removal. It means your kidneys are working properly. It means that you have a low risk of other health problems like kidney stones, gout, or kidney problems.

What Do High Levels of Uric Acid, Serum Indicate?

High uric acid levels (hyperuricemia) indicate problems in uric acid synthesis or removal. This can happen due to kidney issues and can lead to gout and kidney stones. Also, these levels increase the chances of diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease.

What to Do if the Levels Are Higher Than Normal?

If your uric acid levels are higher than normal, it may indicate conditions such as gout, kidney disease, or metabolic disorders. Your doctor will evaluate your symptoms and may suggest lifestyle changes like reducing intake of purine-rich foods, limiting alcohol and sugary drinks, and staying well-hydrated to help flush out excess uric acid.

What Do Low Levels of Uric Acid, Serum Indicate?

Low uric acid levels (hypouricemia) result from increased uric acid removal from the body or decreased production of uric acid. It can occur due to certain medicines or health issues, such as problems in the kidneys, thyroid, or parathyroid glands. Generally, low uric acid levels do not show any symptoms. However, they are associated with muscle weakness, fatigue, and rare genetic disorders. Low uric acid levels are not very common and are often discovered incidentally during routine blood tests. Since low readings can have different causes, always consult a doctor to understand what they mean in your specific case.

Can Uric Acid, Serum Results Be Inaccurate?

Yes. Certain conditions can affect test accuracy. If your uric acid serum test results do not align with your symptoms or overall health, your doctor may recommend repeating the test or ordering additional investigations.

What Factors Can Affect Uric Acid, Serum Results?

Though it is a reliable test, several factors can influence the accuracy:

• Diet including purine-rich or fructose-containing foods
• Alcohol
• Certain medications, like diuretics or immunosuppressants 
• Pregnancy 
• Menopause
• Age
• Dehydration 
• Exercise
• Certain medical conditions, like kidney diseases or cancer

What Follow-Up Tests May Be Required?

Based on your uric acid results, your doctor may recommend additional tests to get a clearer picture of your health or to monitor possible complications. These may include kidney panels, cholesterol testing, or a CBC test.

Table: Tests Commonly Ordered Alongside Uric Acid, Serum: 

The Vitamin D (25-Hydroxy) test measures the levels of vitamin D in the body. Vitamin D is an essential nutrient that can be synthesized in the body upon healthy exposure to sunlight or absorbed from dietary sources. It exists in two forms: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D2 is present in plants, such as yeast or mushrooms, and is available as a supplement in fortified foods. Vitamin D3 is found in foods like cheese, green vegetables, mushrooms, egg yolks, and fatty fish.

Both forms of vitamin D need to be converted in the liver and kidneys before the body can use them effectively. This test shows the total level of vitamin D (D2 + D3) circulating in the body and guides your doctor in recommending the right treatment or lifestyle changes if needed.

What Do the Results Mean?

Pathological Factors 

The Blood Group ABO & Rh Factor determines your blood type and Rh factor. Healthcare providers can ensure compatibility and prevent adverse reactions during medical interventions by identifying an individual's blood type and Rh factor. This test is essential for various medical procedures, including blood transfusions, organ transplants, and prenatal care.

An SGOT (Aspartate Aminotransferase) test measures the levels of serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), also known as aspartate aminotransferase (AST), an enzyme produced by the liver. SGOT is present in most body cells, most abundantly in the liver and heart. The primary function of this enzyme is to convert food into glycogen (a form of glucose), which is stored in the cells, primarily the liver. The body uses this glycogen to generate energy for various body functions.

The Urine R/M (Urine Routine & Microscopy) test involves gross, chemical, and microscopic evaluation of the urine sample.

1. Gross examination: It involves visually inspecting the urine sample for color and appearance. Typically, the urine color ranges from colorless or pale yellow to deep amber, depending on the urine’s concentration. Things such as medications, supplements, and some foods such as beetroot can affect the color of your urine. However, unusual urine color can also be a sign of disease.

   In appearance, the urine sample may be clear or cloudy. A clear appearance is indicative of healthy urine. However, the presence of red blood cells, white blood cells, bacteria, etc., may result in cloudy urine, indicating conditions such as dehydration, UTIs, kidney stones, etc. Some other factors, such as sperm and skin cells, may also result in a cloudy appearance but are harmless.

2. Chemical examination: It examines the chemical nature of the urine sample using special test strips called dipsticks. These test strips are dipped into the urine sample and change color when they come in contact with specific substances. The degree of color change estimates the amount of the substance present. Some common things detected include protein, urine pH, ketones, glucose, specific gravity, blood, bilirubin, nitrites, and urobilinogen.

3. Microscopic examination: This involves the analysis of the urine sample under the microscope for pus cells, red blood cells, casts, crystals, bacteria, yeast and other constituents.

The Bilirubin Total examination quantifies the levels of total bilirubin in the body, encompassing both indirect (unconjugated) and direct (conjugated) bilirubin. Bilirubin, a yellowish waste substance, is primarily generated during the breakdown of aging red blood cells (RBCs) in the body. After their typical lifespan of 120 days, RBCs disintegrate in the liver, leading to the production of a substantial amount of bilirubin. It is crucial for this bilirubin to be eliminated from the body.

The Electrocardiography at Center test is a diagnostic tool used to measure the electrical activity of the heart. This test provides a detailed recording of the heart's electrical impulses, which are crucial for its rhythm and function. By capturing the heart's electrical signals, the ECG test can identify various conditions affecting heart health, such as arrhythmias, heart attacks, and other cardiac abnormalities.

The ECG machine consists of a series of electrodes attached to the skin at specific locations on the chest, arms, and legs. These electrodes sense the electrical impulses produced by the heart as it beats. The impulses are then transmitted to the ECG machine, which records them as a waveform on a computer or paper printout. This waveform represents the heart's electrical activity over time, allowing for the analysis of the heart's rhythm, rate, and electrical conduction.

Doctors examine the ECG trace to diagnose heart conditions and determine appropriate treatments. By evaluating the size and timing of each electrical impulse, doctors can detect issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart muscle damage, and other cardiovascular problems.